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What are minerals? What is a mineral? How many minerals are there? How is a new mineral determined? Is water a mineral? Are water and ice minerals? How do crystals form? What are some applications of metals? How fast do crystals grow? What is the Earth made of? Are their different categories of minerals? If so, what are they? Do all minerals have crystal structures? Are minerals compounds or mixtures? Where might we find products made from rocks and minerals in our daily life? How might you find out other ways in which rocks and minerals are used in everyday items? Why might some people and groups have concerns about the use of some of these rocks and minerals? What might be some alternative materials that could be used instead of the rocks and minerals? How are some of the items made from rocks and/or minerals disposed of when they are no longer useful? Which minerals can be recycled or reused in other products? What is fluorescence? What is tenebrescence? What is luster? Where can I find information on stereographic projections? What is the difference between schiller and chatoyancy? What are the characteristics of a mineral? How are minerals identified? How are minerals used? What are the three types of mines? How are ores processed to obtain metals? What is clay? |
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What are minerals?
The broadest definition of a mineral is that it is something that is "neither vegetable nor animal." It has also been defined as a "solid homogeneous crystalline chemical element or compound" such as iron, copper, carbon, aluminium and so forth. For this lesson, we define a mineral as follows: A naturally occurring inorganic element in the soil which is transformed into an organic compound for use and assimilation by the human body. Notice that there are two parts to the definition: 1) We are concerned only with those minerals that are directly usable by the human organism and that are vital to the healthy functioning of the body. 2) We make a very important distinction between the inorganic form of the mineral as it occurs in the soil and the organic form of the mineral as it is used by the human body. This difference between organic and inorganic mineral forms is the crucial point in understanding mineral nutrition, and is discussed at length later in this lesson. A mineral substance is defined as a naturally occurring, homogeneous solid, inorganically formed, with a well defined chemical composition (or range of compositions), and an ordered atomic arrangement, that has been formed by geological processes, either on earth or in extraterrestrial bodies. The composition of a mineral can be defined by its chemical formula. The identity of its anionic group determines the group into which the mineral is classified. For example, the mineral halite (NaCl) is composed of two elements, sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl), in a 1:1 ratio; its anionic group is chloride (Cl-)--a halide--so halite is classified as a halide. Minerals can thus be classified into the following major groups: native elements, sulfides, sulfosalts, oxides and hydroxides, halides, carbonates, nitrates, borates, sulfates, phosphates, and silicates. Silicates are the most commonly occurring minerals because silica is the most abundant constituent of the Earth's crust (about 59 percent). How many minerals are there? There are approximately 3800 known minerals. About 30 to 50 new minerals are described and one or two minerals are discredited each year. The most complete listing of minerals is J. Mandarino Fleischer's Glossary of Mineral Species 1999 published by the Mineralogical Record. He alphabetically lists mineral name, formula, crystal system, and reference. More complete descriptions of minerals are found in Handbook of Mineralogy (5 volumes have been published - The silicate section is online on this site) and Dana's New Mineralogy 8th ed ( numerous typographical errors). Discredited mineral names (35,000 to 40,000) are listed in Peter Bayliss Glossary of Obsolete Mineral Names published by the Mineralogical Record and the Jeffrey de Fourestier Glossary of Mineral Synonyms published by the Mineralogical Association of Canada ( Special Publication #2 ). A. M. Clark Hey's Mineral index: Mineral species, varieties and synonyms 3rd ed. lists both valid species and discredited minerals. Two online listings of mineral species are at David Barthelmy's or Jolyon Ralph's web site. In the late 1800's and early 1900's, many scientists named minerals that were only a different color or habit, or had a minor variation in chemistry. The development of X-ray crystallography in the 1930's and better chemical analyses has led to a clearer understanding of the difference between a mineral and variety of a mineral. When the IMA took on the responsibility for determining the validity of new minerals in 1959, the task was too large to "officially" determine the validity of previously described minerals. MINERAL PROPERTIES and identification procedures Scientists identify elemental makeup by conducting complex test with expensive equipment, such as x-ray and high powered electron microscopes. They use these techniques to identify minerals. For the most part, though, minerals can be identified by conducting a few simple, costless tests. Once a person becomes experienced in this field, he can usually identify a mineral by observing it and taking into account its specific features, such as color and crystal formation. Below is a list of all of these properties. Select a property to learn about it, and how it is used as an identification procedure. Color Streak Hardness Crystals Transparency Specific Gravity Luster Cleavage Parting Fracture Tenacity Additional Properties Fluorescence Phosphorescence Triboluminescence Thermoluminescence Electrical Properties Magnetic Properties Radioactivity Water Solubility and Taste Feel Odor Percussion Figure Efflorescence Deliquesce Transformation Decomposition Location Complex Mineral Testing Methods X-ray analysis Blowpipe Test Bead Test Flame Test Tube Test Acid Test Optical Properties Refractive Index Double Refraction Dispersion and Fire Absorption Spectrum Light and Color Effects Asterism Adularescence Aventurization Cat's Eye Effect Chatoyancy Cymophane Effect Dichroism and Pleochroism Iridescence Opalescence Silk Effect What is a rock? A rock is (generally) a natural solid composed of multiple crystals of one or more minerals. Although many rocks contain visible crystals of individual minerals, a rock itself does not have an overall crystalline structure. Where do metals come from? Most pure metals, like aluminium, silver and copper, come from the Earth's crust. They are found in ores - solid materials called minerals, usually occurring in rock, from which the pure metal has to be extracted. The properties of pure metals can be improved by mixing them with other metals to make alloys. Metals are often divided into: ferrous metals, which have iron in them (for example mild steel, carbon steel and cast iron) non-ferrous metals, which don't have iron in them (for example copper, aluminium, tin and lead). How is a new mineral determined? For each new proposed mineral, data on the chemical composition, crystallography, and physical properties is submitted to the Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names of the International Mineralogical Association (CNMMN of IMA). After it is determined that the description is sufficient to justify a new mineral, the describer is and they have two years to publish the information. The type material is deposited in a repository (usually a museum) if a comparison is ever needed of the originally described material ( the type specimen). see Nickel & Grice. Are water and ice minerals? A mineral is defined as a naturally occurring, homogeneous solid, inorganically formed, with a definite chemical composition( or range of compositions), and an ordered atomic arrangement. Water does not pass the test of being a solid so it is not considered a mineral although ice; which is solid, is classified as a mineral as long as it is naturally occurring. Thus ice in a snow bank is a mineral, but ice in an ice cube from a refrigerator is not. The only exception to this rule ( there always seem to be one ) is that mercury is considered a mineral (more a result of history - mercury was an important alchemical substance). The derivation of the definition of mineral has much more to do with the history of mineralogy than semantics. In the 17th and 18th centuries, there were collections of items of natural history being put together. For instance there were probably twenty different varieties of quartz ( rock crystal, amethyst, agate, chert, etc) that were classified as different things and some things that were considered the same ( jade - jadeite and nephrite), but were in actuality a number of different minerals. Humans have always tried to understand things by grouping the items together and determining generalizations about their properties. The two major points of the definition of minerals is that they have a long range order ( the crystallography ) and a definite chemical composition. With these two factors, it is possible to split the mineral world into different objects (minerals) that have similar properties. If one looks at the same chemistry (say carbon), then differences in crystallography will effect the mineral's properties. Thus one can distinguish diamond, graphite, and fullerenes by their crystallography even though they have the same chemistry. If one takes the same crystallography with different chemistry, one can distinguish gold and silver. The work of HaĂźy in crystallography and by Berzelius in chemistry in the 18th and 19th century allowed the minerals to be systematically determined by the combined use of crystallography and chemistry (i.e. Dana's System of Mineralogy). There had been an attempt to use the Linnaean system ( the genus and species of biology) to classify minerals, but it was not successful. ( A good overview of the history of mineralogy can be found at the Euromin Web Site ) One of the problems with liquids was that until recently, there was no good way to study them. The modeling in computers and the development of the atomic force microscopes has finally opened up new methods to study fluids. One of the topics now being discussed is how much of a substance is needed before it can be considered a mineral? With the new scientific tools available, their are regions in noncrystalline materials (glasses) that do exhibit order. One of the unique properties of water is that it can exist in solid, liquid and gaseous states at surface conditions of the earth and the solid is less dense than the liquid. Mineralogists had to leave a few things for the hydrologists and meteorologists to study. If a mineral is melted, the liquid is not considered as being a mineral. At absolute zero ( theoretically possible, but unattainable in nature) there is no movement of any atoms in a solid. As the temperature increases, there is more vibration in the atoms, but the bonds between the atoms are strong enough that they are not broken. When one reaches the melting point, these vibrations become large enough that they break the bonds between the atoms and the substance melts. The thermal energy allows the atoms to move about enough so that there is no tendency to form any type of long range order in the substance. How do crystals form? Crystals can form in many different ways. Almost all of the earth is formed from crystals ( except the parts that are molten). Most of the time, the crystals have grown in a way that they are crowded together and show no external faces (anhedral). Crystals grow when the solubility of elements in a liquid phase is exceeded and they need to transform into a solid or the energy needed to keep them liquid is not sufficient. A crystal can form from a vapor. Sulfur can condense from a vapor and form crystals in fumarole vents in volcanoes. A more common example for those of us in the North is the formation of frost on a windowpane. The ability of the air to contain water vapor is exceeded and crystals of ice grow. Crystals can also grow from solutions of ions in a fluid such as water. A large number of economic ores are concentrated into mineable deposits by this means. The quartz crystals from Arkansas are an example of this process. Some sedimentary rocks are formed entirely by this process (evaporites). Salt will also crystallize out of solutions when evaporation of the water saturates sodium and chloride ions in the water. When a magma ( molten rock) cools, crystals can form as the magma solidifies. Certain minerals will form at various temperatures and will drop out as the magma cools. This forms one of the major ores of chromium as chromite crystallizes as a magma solidifies. Crystals can also grow at the expense of earlier formed crystals. The silver sulfide argentite is stable at high temperatures. As the temperature is lowered, there is a transformation to the mineral acanthite. There is no change in the chemical composition of the material, but the arrangement of the atoms is changed. Pressure changes can also change the crystallography of the minerals without any changes in the chemistry. Diamond is a mineral that is not stable at the earth's surface, but the rate that it transforms into the mineral graphite is so slow that it will last for long periods of time (metastable). There are several good resources on the web for crystal growing. These include the Rockhounding Arkansas site. Another site with a lot of good links is here. Good crystals that show the external faces (euhedral) are relatively rare since they require the growth into an open space and not a lot of nucleation which would result in the growth of many numerous smaller crystals. There has been a relatively recent discovery of large gypsum crystals in Spain. They are about three feet long in a twenty foot cavity, but the location in the mine is very hot, so people can't stay in the area for more than a few minutes. Pegmatites often have very large crystals because the melt is very fluid rich. Beryl crystals to eighteen feet in length were found in the Bumpus Quarry at Albany, Maine. (also see article by J. Betts). A recent study by Gasser et al. (Science 292:258-262) on the "crystallization" of colloid particles indicated a critical size of 60 to 160 spheres to form a stable nucleus for the further growth of a crystal. The nucleus was ovoid in shape and the same packing as the bulk material. How fast do crystals grow? Crystals grow at many different rates. The speed depends upon the supply of the elements, the degree of oversaturation present, and the mechanism of element transport. For instance, garnets can grow by solid state diffusion. It has been estimated that they can grow about one atomic layer per year ( a two centimeter crystal growing over a period of ten million years ). In mines, crystals can grow extremely fast. I have a pipe that was used to pump water out of the mine, and there are inch crystals of gypsum that developed in five or six years. The gypsum crystals in Jet, Oklahoma grow over a period of a few years. Salt crystals will grow in the period of a few months, when the water evaporates from playas in the West. The minerals that form in the slags of ores from Laurium, Greece will have formed over a period of about a couple of thousand years ( these are usually a couple of millimeters in size). Most other types of crystals will take periods of time between these extremes to grow into crystals. One of the main problems with determining on how fast a crystal grows in nature is the difficulty in measuring when the crystal started growing and when it ended. The nice thing about the mines and the salt flats, is that we can determine maximum ages with relative certainty. The garnet growth was slow enough that Sm/Nd dating can be used to date the center and edge of the crystal and the whole crystal was not equilibrated during crystal growth ( see Vance & O'nions 1990 Earth & Planetary Science Letters pp 227-240). One problem with this method is that often the uncertainties are larger than the duration of crystal growth. Another article on garnet growth can be found on this site's materials research articles ( v1n1) by Spears. The salt flats can be found at their web site. Another good source of information is volume 26 of the MSA's Reviews in Mineralogy Contact Metamorphism. Since a lot of minerals grow as the result of hydrothermal activity, the maximum time of formation will be how long it takes the systems to cool down. This is usually in the range of a few thousand years for near surface intrusions/extrusions to a few million years for deeper emplaced intrusions. Plumbing changes due to earthquakes could shorten the time for crystal growth. Growth from vapors in volcanic areas can be extremely rapid. Have you ever wondered what youâre really standing on? What is the Earth made of? If you could take the entire planet, sort it out into its various elements into piles, youâd have the following: 32% iron, 30% oxygen, 15% silicon, 14% magnesium, 3% sulfur, 2% nickel, and then much smaller piles of calcium, aluminum, and other trace elements. Obviously, we donât breath an iron atmosphere or swim in oceans of silicon. The elements of Earth are layered in the planet. Earth has a diameter of about 12,756 km (7,972 mi). The Earth's interior consists of rock and metal. It is made up of four main layers: 1) the inner core: a solid metal core made up of nickel and iron (2440 km diameter) 2) the outer core: a liquid molten core of nickel and iron 3) the mantle: dense and mostly solid silicate rock 4) the crust: thin silicate rock material The mass of the Earth is 5.97 x 10(24) kg and density is 5.5 g/cm3. This density makes the Earth the densest planet in the Solar System. We live on the outermost layer of Earth, called the crust. This varies in depth between 5 and 75 km. Itâs mostly made of silicates, with a tremendous amount of oxygen mixed in. In fact, 47% of the Earthâs crust is oxygen. The thickest parts of the crust are under the continents, and the thinnest parts are underneath the oceans. Beneath this crust is the mantle, which goes down to a depth of 2890 km. Itâs the largest layer on Earth, and mostly consists of silicate rocks rich in iron and magnesium. Volcanoes are places where this mantle wells up through the crust. Below the mantle is the core, which is broken up into two parts: a solid inner core with a radius of 1,220 km, and then a liquid outer core that goes out to a radius of 3,400 km. Scientists think that the core consists mostly of iron (80%), which pulled together into the middle of the planet during the formation of the Earth, 4.5 billion years ago. What is the Earth made of? Are their different categories of minerals? If so, what are they? Do all minerals have crystal structures? Are minerals compounds or mixtures? Where might we find products made from rocks and minerals in our daily life? How might you find out other ways in which rocks and minerals are used in everyday items? Why might some people and groups have concerns about the use of some of these rocks and minerals? What might be some alternative materials that could be used instead of the rocks and minerals? How are some of the items made from rocks and/or minerals disposed of when they are no longer useful? Which minerals can be recycled or reused in other products? What is fluorescence? What is tenebrescence? What is luster? Where can I find information on stereographic projections? What is the difference between schiller and chatoyancy? What is fluorescence? There are a number of books that have been written about fluorescent minerals such as The Collector's Book of Fluorescent Minerals by Manuel Robbins. He also wrote a column on fluorescent minerals in the magazine Rocks and Minerals for a number of years. The Mineralogical Record had an issue ( Jan/Feb 1996) that had a number of articles on fluorescent minerals ( it was the theme mineral for the Tucson show that year - probably the best display of fluorescent minerals ever mounted). Rocks and Minerals also published a number of articles in their issue (Jan/Feb 1996), but unfortunately that issue is out of print ( it should be available at a library). You can find links to these magazines in the MSA's links page. What is tenebrescence? Tenebrescence is the property that some minerals and phosphors show of darkening in response to radiation of one wavelength and then reversibly bleaching on exposure to a different wavelength. A common example is spodumene (the Mn-containing variety, kunzite). {American Mineralogist 38, p 919 (1953).} Exposure to x-rays will turn it green and exposure to visible light will return it to pink. The energy of the x-rays (or gamma rays) will strip an electron from Mn3+ (pink) and effectively oxidize it to Mn4+ (green). The electron will be trapped somewhere in the crystal. The energy of visible light will free the trapped electron and allow it to diffuse back to the Mn4+, thereby reducing it back to Mn3+. Cohen AJ, Janezic GG (1983) The crystal-field spectra of the 3d3 ions, Cr3+ and Mn4+ in green spodumenes. In: The Significance of Trace Elements in Solving Petrogenetic Problems & Controversies. Theophrastus Pubs. S.A., Athens. Tugtupite is another mineralogical example. In this minerals, the color changes (colorless to pink to colorless) is brought about by light of different wavelengths (ultraviolet and visible) and represents changes in the polymerization of small sulphur molecules. Povarennykh AS, Platonov AN, Tarashchan AN, Belichenko VP (1971) The color and luminescence of tugtupite (beryllosodalite) from Ilimaussaq, South Greenland. Meddelelsev om Gronland 181:1-12 X-rays will turn corundum yellow, but that fades in room light to colorless. I don't think the detailed mechanism is known. In fact, many minerals show changes on exposure to x-rays and fade on exposure to visible light; usually we don't know the exact cause of the changes. Two books, both rather dated, discuss irradiation colors. I know of no better recent book on the subject. What is luster? Luster is an optical property of minerals. There are two main types of luster, metallic and nonmetallic, with an intermediate luster of submetallic. The intensity of the luster depends upon the amount of light reflected from the surface, which is generally related to the refractive index of the mineral. Color usually doesn't have an effect on the luster. Metallic luster is produced by minerals with a refractive index of greater than 3. The minerals are opaque and usually are from the native element and sulfide groups. Submetallic luster is formed by minerals with refractive indexes between 2.6 and 3.0. Minerals in this group include some sulfides and oxides. Nonmetallic lusters are further divided into the following types. Adamantine luster is the brilliant luster produced by minerals such as diamond. The refractive indexes for this luster range from 1.9 to 2.6. Minerals with this type of luster are cassiterite, zircon, and diamond. If these minerals have a brown color, the luster is often called resinous. Vitreous luster is the luster of glass. The refractive indexes range from 1.3 to 1.9. This luster is found in approximately 70% of the minerals such as silicates, carbonates, phosphates, etc. Surface effects of minerals can also affect the luster of a mineral. Diamonds have a greasy luster which is caused by slight roughness of the surface. A waxy luster is produced in cryptocrystalline (extremely small crystal aggregates) or amorphous minerals such as chalcedony and opal. A dull or earthy luster is produced when the mineral grains are small and porous such as in clay minerals. Silky luster is produced by parallel aggregates of mineral fibers such as asbestos or gypsum ( the variety "satin spar"). Pearly luster is produced in transparent minerals with lamellar cleavage such as talc, mica, and gypsum. The refractive index is related to the electronic structure of the mineral. If the electrons orbit the atoms at an energy that overlaps or is close to the energy of the electrons in excited states ( created by the absorption of light), the mineral will be opaque and have a high refractive index. If the electron levels (ground and excited) are widely spaced ( light has a small chance of being absorbed and raising the electrons to an excited state), most light will pass through the mineral and the refractive index will be low. Where can I find information on stereographic projections? There are a fair number of resources on the web for the understanding of crystallography. You can enter in any cell and see how the planes and directions appear on the projection. What is the difference between schiller and chatoyancy? Roland Bounds replied Chatoyancy refers to the "cat's eye" effect in minerals which are translucent and have internal, parallel, fibrous structures (e g. rutile fibers) which can scatter light. Schiller or Schiller Flash as it is sometimes known, is the bronze or gold internal luster caused by reflections from inclusions and cavities along crystal planes. This is typically a product of solution etching on crystal planes (e g. internal cleavage planes). Chatoyancy is used generally to refer to the eye effect in minerals such as corundum, or the 'tigereye' variety of quartz, while Schiller generally refers to the golden flash seen when looking at some of the feldspars such as labradorite. Multiple-Choice Questions 1. Which of these is an element? 1. ? CoO 2. ? NaCl 3. YES Mg 4. ? CO2 2. Which of the following is the chemical symbol for the element potassium? 1. ? P 2. ? Pt 3. ? Po 4. ? K 3. Which particle is formed when a black solid and a colourless gas chemically combine? 1. ? 6 2. ? 4 3. ? 2 4. ? 9 4. Which picture represents a mixture of atoms of an element and molecules of another element? 1. ? emc31.gif 2. ? emc25.gif 3. ? emc07.gif 4. ? emc01.gif 5. Which of these is a compound? 1. ? MgO 2. ? Co 3. ? F2 4. ? P4 6. The formula for copper sulphate is CuSO4. What is the ratio of Cu : S : O atoms in the formula? 1. ? 1 : 4 : 4 2. ? 4 : 3 : 4 3. ? 1 : 1 : 4 4. ? 4 : 4 : 4 7. Given the STATEMENT about ...., decide whether it is TRUE or FALSE for an ELEMENT, COMPOUND or MIXTURE STATEMENT about .... ELEMENT COMPOUND MIXTURE has only one type of atom? true or false? true or false? true or false? 1. ? false, true, true 2. ? false, false, true 3. ? true, true, false 4. ? true, false, false 8. What is the formula of the molecule? 1. ? C5H6O 2. ? C3H6O2 3. ? C2H6O3 4. ? 3C6H2O 9. Which method of separation is best to use for investigating the composition of food dyes in sweet colours? 1. ? evaporation 2. ? filtration 3. ? distillation 4. ? chromatography 10. Which is the chemical symbol for the element chlorine? 1. ? Cr 2. ? Co 3. ? Ce 4. ? Cl Elements Compounds And Mixtures 1. * Think about pure water. No matter what you do to it physicallyâfreeze it, boil it, stir it, or strain itâit still is water. * On the other hand, if you boil salt water, the water turns to gas and leaves the salt behind. * How does chemistry explain these differences? Substances What is a solution? 2. * Recall that atoms are the basic building blocks of matter. Atoms and Elements 3. 4. * A substance is matter that has the same fixed composition and properties. It canât be broken down into simpler parts by ordinary physical processes, such as boiling, grinding, or filtering. * Only a chemical process can change a substance into one or more new substances. Atoms and Elements 5. 6. * An element is an example of a pure substance; it cannot be broken down into simpler substances. * The number of protons in an element , like oxygen, are fixedâit cannot change unless the element changes. Atoms and Elements 7. * Water is not an element . It is an example of a compound which is made of two or more elements that are chemically combined. * Compounds also have fixed compositions. Compounds * The ratio of the atoms in a compound is always the same. 8. * Mixtures are combinations of substances that are not bonded together and can be separated by physical processes. Mixtures 9. * Unlike compounds, mixtures do not always contain the same proportions of the substances that they are composed of. Mixtures 10. Mixtures * Lemonade is a mixture that can be strong tasting or weak tasting, depending on the amounts of water and lemon juice that are added. 11. * A type of mixture where the substances are not mixed evenly is called a heterogeneous (he tuh ruh JEE nee us) mixture . * The different areas of a heterogeneous mixture have different compositions. Heterogeneous Mixtures 12. Heterogeneous Mixtures * The substances in a heterogeneous mixture are usually easy to tell apart, like the seeds from the fruit of a watermelon. 13. * A homogeneous mixture contains two or more substances that are evenly mixed on a molecular level but still are not bonded together. * Another name for a homogeneous mixture is a solution . Homogeneous Mixtures 14. * The substance that dissolvesâor seems to disappearâis called the solute . * The substance that dissolves the solute is called the solvent . How Solutions Form 15. How Solutions Form * In a hummingbird feeder solution , the solute is the sugar and the solvent is water. 16. * Under certain conditions, a solute can come back out of its solution and form a solid. * This process is called crystallization . Forming Solids from Solutions * Crystallization is the result of a physical change. 17. * When some solutions are mixed, a chemical reaction occurs, forming a solid. This solid is called a precipitate (prih SIH puh tayt). * A precipitate is the result of a chemical change. Forming Solids from Solutions 18. * Stalactites and stalagmites in caves are formed from solutions. * First, minerals dissolve in water as it flows through rocks at the top of the cave. Forming Solids from Solutions * This solution of water and dissolved minerals drips from the ceiling of the cave. 19. * When drops of the solution evaporate from the roof of the cave, the minerals are left behind. * They create the hanging rock formations called stalactites . Forming Solids from Solutions Stalactite 20. Forming Solids from Solutions * When drops of the solution fall onto the floor of the cave and evaporate, they form stalagmites . Stalagmite 21. Types of Solutions * Solutions can be made up of different combinations of solids, liquids, and gases. 22. 23. * Youâve already learned about liquid-solid solutions such as sugar water and salt water. * When discussing solutions , the state of the solvent usually determines the state of the solution . Liquid Solutions 24. * Carbonated beverages are liquid-gas solutions âcarbon dioxide is the gaseous solute , and water is the liquid solvent. * The carbon dioxide gas gives the beverage its fizz and some of its tartness. Liquid-Gas Solutions 25. * In a liquid-liquid solution , both the solvent and the solute are liquids. * Vinegar, which you might use to make salad dressing, is a liquid-liquid solution made of 95 percent water ( the solvent ) and 5 percent acetic acid ( the solute ). Liquid-Liquid Solutions 26. * In gaseous solutions , a smaller amount of one gas is dissolved in a larger amount of another gas. * This is called a gas-gas solution because both the solvent and solute are gases. Gaseous Solutions * The air you breathe is a gaseous solution . 27. * In solid solutions , the solvent is a solid. * The solute can be a solid, liquid, or gas. Solid Solutions * The most common solid solutions are solid-solid solutionsâones in which the solvent and the solute are solids. 28. * A solid-solid solution made from two or more metals is called an alloy . Solid Solutions * Brass is a solid solution made of copper and zinc. 29. WaterâThe Universal Solvent * A solution in which water is the solvent is called an aqueous (A kwee us) solution . * Because water can dissolve so many different solutes , chemists often call it the universal solvent . 30. Molecular Compounds * When certain atoms form compounds , they share electrons. Sharing electrons is called covalent bonding . * Compounds that contain covalent bonds are called molecular compounds , or molecules . 31. Molecular Compounds * If a molecule has an even distribution of electrons it is called nonpolar . * In a water molecule , the electrons spend more time around the oxygen atom than the hydrogen atoms. * Such a molecule is polar . 32. Ionic Bonds * Atoms with a charge are called ions . * Bonds between ions that are formed by the transfer of electrons are called ionic bonds , and the compound that is formed is called an ionic compound . * Table salt is an ionic compound that is made of sodium ions and chloride ions . 33. How Water Dissolves Ionic Compounds * Because water molecules are polar , they attract positive and negative ions . * The more positive part of a water moleculeâwhere the hydrogen atoms areâis attracted to negatively charged ions. 34. How Water Dissolves Ionic Compounds 35. How Water Dissolves Ionic Compounds * The more negative part of a water moleculeâwhere the oxygen atom isâattracts positive ions . * When an ionic compound is mixed with water, the different ions of the compound are pulled apart by the water molecules. 36. How Water Dissolves Molecular Compounds * Water does dissolve molecular compounds , such as sugar, although it doesnât break each sugar molecule apart. * Water simply moves between different molecules of sugar, separating them. 37. What will dissolve? * When you stir a spoonful of sugar into iced tea, all of the sugar dissolves but none of the metal in the spoon does. * A substance that dissolves in another is said to be soluble in that substance. * You would say that the sugar is soluble in water but the metal of the spoon is insoluble in water. 38. Like Dissolves Like * When trying to predict which solvents can dissolve which solutes , chemists use the rule of â like dissolves like .â * Polar solvents dissolve polar solutes and nonpolar solvents dissolve nonpolar solutes. 39. Like Dissolves Like * On the other hand, if a solvent and a solute are not similar, the solute wonât dissolve. * For example, oil and water do not mix. * Oil molecules are nonpola r, so polar water molecules are not attracted to them. 40. How much will dissolve? * Solubility (sahl yuh BIH luh tee) is a measurement that describes how much solute dissolves in a given amount of solvent . * The solubility of a material has been described as the amount of the material that can dissolve in 100 g of solvent at a given temperature. * When a substance has an extremely low solubility , it usually is considered insoluble . 41. Solubility in Liquid-Solid Solutions * The solubility of many solutes changes if you change the temperature of the solvent. * For example, if you heat water, not only does the sugar dissolve at a faster rate , but more sugar can dissolve in it . 42. * This graph shows how the temperature of the solvent affects the solubility of some solutes . 43. Solubility in Liquid-Gas Solutions * Unlike liquid-solid solutions , an increase in temperature decreases the solubility of a gas in a liquid-gas solution. * You might notice this if you have ever opened a warm carbonated beverage and it bubbled up out of control while a chilled one barely fizzed. * Carbon dioxide is less soluble in a warm solution . 44. Saturated Solutions * A solution that contains all of the solute that it can hold under the given conditions is called a saturated solution. * If a solution is a liquid-solid solution , the extra solute that is added will settle to the bottom of the container. * Itâs possible to make solutions that have less solute than they would need to become saturated . Such solutions are unsaturated . 45. Saturated Solutions * A hot solvent usually can hold more solute than a cool solvent can. * If a saturated solution is cooled slowly, sometimes the excess solute remains dissolved for a period of time. * Such a solution is said to be supersaturated , because it contains more than the normal amount of solute . 46. Rate of Dissolving * Some solutes dissolve quickly, but others take a long time to dissolve . * A solute dissolves faster when the solution is stirred or shaken or when the temperature of the solution is increased. 47. Rate of Dissolving * These methods increase the rate at which the surfaces of the solute come into contact with the solvent . 48. Concentration * The concentration of a solution tells you how much solute is present compared to the amount of solvent . * You can give a simple description of a solutionâs concentration by calling it either concentrated or dilute . * A concentrated solution has more solute per given amount of solvent than a dilute solution . 49. Measuring Concentrations * One way of giving the exact concentration is to state the percentage of the volume of the solution that is made up of solute . 50. Measuring Concentrations * Labels on fruit drinks show their concentration . * Another way to describe the concentration of a solution is to give a percentage of the total mass that is made up of solute. 51. Effects of Solute Particles * The effect that a solute has on the freezing or boiling point of a solvent depends on the number of solute particles . * When a solvent such as water begins to freeze, its molecules arrange themselves in a particular pattern. 52. Effects of Solute Particles * Adding a solute such as sodium chloride to this solvent changes the way the molecules arrange themselves. * To overcome this interference of the solute, a lower temperature is needed to freeze the solvent. 53. Acids * Acids are substances that release positively charged hydrogen ions, H + , in the water. * When an acid mixes with water, the acid dissolves, releasing a hydrogen ion . Acidic and Basic Solutions 54. Acids * The hydrogen ion then combines with a water molecule to form a hydronium ion . * Hydronium ions are positively charged and have the formula H 3 O + . 55. 56. Properties of Acidic Solutions * Sour taste is one of the properties of acidic solutions. * Another property of acidic solutions is that they can conduct electricity . * Acidic solutions also are corrosive , which means they break down certain substances. Many acids can corrode fabric, skin, and paper. * The solutions of some acids also react strongly with certain metals . 57. Uses of Acids * Vinegar , which is used in salad dressing, contains acetic acid . * Lemons, limes, and oranges have a sour taste because they contain citric acid . 58. Uses of Acids * Your body needs ascorbic acid , which is vitamin C . * Sulfuric acid is used in the production of fertilizers, steel, paints, and plastics. 59. Uses of Acids * Acids often are used in batteries because their solutions conduct electricity . * Hydrochloric acid , which is known commercially as muriatic acid , is used in a process called pickling. Pickling is a process that removes impurities from the surfaces of metals. 60. Acid in the Environment * Carbonic acid plays a key role in the formation of caves and of stalactites and stalagmites . * Carbonic acid is formed when carbon dioxide in soil is dissolved in water. * When this acidic solution comes in contact with calcium carbonateâor limestone rockâit can dissolve it, eventually carving out a cave in the rock. 61. Bases * Bases are substances that can accept hydrogen ions . * When bases dissolve in water, some hydrogen atoms from the water molecules are attracted to the base . 62. Bases * A hydrogen atom in the water molecule leaves behind the other hydrogen atom and oxygen atom. * This pair of atoms is a negatively charged ion called a hydroxide ion . * A hydroxide ion has the formula OH â . * Most bases contain a hydroxide ion , which is released when the base dissolves in water. 63. Properties of Basic Solutions * Basic solutions feel slippery . * Bases also taste bitter . * Like acids, bases are corrosive . * Basic solutions contain ions and can conduct electricity . Basic solutions are not as reactive with metals as acidic solutions are. 64. Uses of Bases * Bases give soaps, ammonia, and many other cleaning products some of their useful properties. * The hydroxide ions produced by bases can interact strongly with certain substances, such as dirt and grease. 65. Uses of Bases * Chalk and oven cleaner are examples of familiar products that contain bases. * Your blood is a basic solution. 66. Click box to view movie. 67. What is pH? * pH is a measure of how acidic or basic a solution is. * The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14 . * Acidic solutions have pH values below 7 . * A solution with a pH of 0 is very acidic. * A solution with a pH of 7 is neutral . * Basic solutions have pH values above 7. 68. pH Scale * A change of 1 pH unit represents a tenfold change in the acidity of the solution. * For example, if one solution has a pH of 1 and a second solution has a pH of 2 , the first solution is not twice as acidic as the secondâit is ten times more acidic . 69. Strengths of Acids and Bases * The difference between food acids and the acids that can burn you is that they have different strengths. * The strength of an acid is related to how easily the acid separates into ions, or how easily a hydrogen ion is released, when the acid dissolves in water. 70. Strengths of Acids and Bases * In the same concentration, a strong acidâlike hydrochloric acidâforms more hydronium ions in solution than a weak acid doesâlike acetic acid. 71. Strengths of Acids and Bases * More hydronium ions means the strong-acid solutions has a lower pH than the weak-acid solution . 72. Strengths of Acids and Bases * The strength of a base is related to how easily the base separates into ions , or how easily a hydroxide ion is released , when the base dissolves in water . 73. Indicators * Indicators are compounds that react with acidic and basic solutions and produce certain colors, depending on the solutionâs pH. * Because they are different colors at different pHs, indicators can help you determine the pH of a solution. * When litmus paper is placed in an acidic solution , it turns red . When placed in a basic solution, litmus paper turns blue . 74. Neutralization * Heartburn or stomach discomfort is caused by excess hydrochloric acid in the stomach. * An antacid product, often made from the base magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH) 2 , neutralizes the excess acid. * Neutralization (new truh luh ZAY shun) is the reaction of an acid with a base. It is called this because the properties of both the acid and base are diminished, or neutralized . 75. How does neutralization occur? * Recall that every water molecule contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom . * When one hydronium ion reacts with one hydroxide ion , the product is two water molecules . This reaction occurs during acid-base neutralization . 76. 77. How does neutralization occur? * Equal numbers of hydronium ions from the acidic solution and hydroxide ions from the basic solution react to produce water. * Pure water has a pH of 7, which means that itâs neutral. Just 10 elements make up 99% (by weight) of the Earth's crust. These are O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, Mg, Ti, H. Most (74.3%) of the minerals in the Earth's crust contain Oxygen (O) and Silicon (Si). Quantum mechanics tells us how the electrons behave in "orbit" around the nucleus. All the chemical properties (i.e. combine and react with other elements) of that element are governed by the "configuration" of electrons. A mineral is something in nature that is neither a plant nor an animal. Properties of Minerals What are the characteristics of a mineral? How are minerals identified? A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid that has a crystal structure and a definite chemical composition. For a substance to be considered a mineral, it must have all five of these characteristics. Geologists have identified more than 3,000 different minerals. Of these, only about 100 are common. About 20 minerals make up most of the rocks of Earthâs crust. These minerals are known as rock forming minerals. To be classified as a mineral, a substance must occur naturally in Earthâs crust. A mineral must also be inorganic. This means that the mineral cannot arise from materials that were once part of a living thing. A mineral is always a solid, with a definite volume and shape. The particles of a mineral line up in a pattern that repeats over and over again. The repeating pattern of a mineralâs particles forms a solid called a crystal. All minerals have a characteristic crystal structure. A mineral has a definite chemical compositionâit always contains certain elements in definite amounts. An element is a substance composed of a single kind of atom. The vast majority of minerals are compounds. In a compound, two or more elements are combined so that the elements no longer have distinct properties. Some elements occur in nature in a pure form. These, such as silver and gold, are considered to be minerals. Each mineral has its own specific properties that can be used to identify it. The Mohs hardness scale ranks ten minerals from softest to hardest. The color of a mineral can be used to identify minerals that always have their own characteristic color. The streak of a mineral is the color of its powder. Even though the color of a mineral may vary, its streak does not. Another simple test is a mineralâs luster, the term used to describe how a mineral reflects light from its surface. Each mineral has a characteristic density. No matter what the size of a mineral sample, the density of that mineral always remains the same. The crystals of each mineral grow to form that mineralâs particular crystal shape. Geologists classify these shapes into six groups according to the number and angle of the faces. The way a mineral breaks apart can help to identify it. A mineral that splits easily along flat surfaces has the property called cleavage. Most minerals do not split apart evenly. Instead, they have a property called fracture. Fracture describes how a mineral looks when it breaks apart. Some minerals can be identified by special properties. Minerals that glow under ultraviolet light have a property known as fluorescence. Magnetism occurs naturally in a few minerals, such as magnetite. Uraninite and a few other minerals are radioactive. Calcite gives off carbon dioxide when a drop of vinegar is placed on it. A few minerals, such as quartz, have electrical properties. Properties of Minerals - Review Fill in the blanks in the table below. Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper. 5. List the five characteristics necessary for a substance to be a mineral.______________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ 6. Explain why each mineral has its own properties, different from every other mineral. _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Vocabulary Match each term with its definition by writing the letter of the correct definition on the line beside the term in the left column. _________________ 7. cleavage _________________ 8. streak _________________ 9. luster _________________ 10. compound _________________ 11. fluorescence _________________ 12. fracture _________________ 13. Mohs hardness scale _________________ 14. crystal _________________ 15. element a. the property of glowing under ultraviolet light b. how a mineral reflects light from its surface c. a substance composed of a single kind of atom d. the property of splitting evenly along flat surfaces e. two or more elements chemically joined f. how a mineral breaks apart when it does not split evenly g. the repeating pattern of a mineralâs particles in a solid h. the color of a mineralâs powder i. a ranking of minerals from softest to hardest How Minerals Form What are the processes by which minerals form The minerals that people use today have been forming deep in Earthâs crust or on the surface for several billion years. In general, minerals can form in two ways: through crystallization of melted materials, and through crystallization of materials dissolved in water. Crystallization is the process by which atoms are arranged to form a material with a crystal shape. Minerals can form as hot magma cools deep inside the crust, or as lava hardens on the surface. When these liquids cool to the solid state, they form mineral crystals. The size of these crystals depends on several factors. The rate at which magma cools, the amount of gas magma contains, and the chemical composition of magma all affect crystal size. Slow cooling leads to the formation of minerals with large crystals. If the crystals remain undisturbed while cooling deep below the surface, they grow according to a regular pattern. Magma closer to the surface loses heat energy much faster than magma that hardens deep below ground. With rapid cooling, there is no time for magma to form large crystals. If magma erupts to the surface, the lava will also cool quickly and form minerals with small crystals. Sometimes, the elements that form a mineral dissolve in hot water. These dissolved minerals form solutions. A solution is a mixture in which one substance dissolves in another. When a hot water solution begins to cool, the elements and compounds leave the solution and crystallize as minerals. Pure metals that crystallize underground from hot water solutions often form veins. A vein is a narrow channel or slab of a mineral that is sharply different from the surrounding rock. Deep underground, solutions of hot water and metals often follow fractures, or cracks, within the rock. Then the metals crystallize into veins. Many minerals form from solutions at places where tectonic plates spread apart along the mid-ocean ridge. The hot magma heats ocean water that seeps underground. The heated water dissolves minerals. When the solution billows out of vents called âchimneys,â minerals crystallize in the cold sea. Minerals can also form when solutions evaporate. For example, thick deposits of the mineral halite, or table salt, formed over millions of years when ancient seas slowly evaporated. In addition to halite, other useful minerals form by the evaporation of seawater, including gypsum, calcite crystals, and minerals containing potassium. Earthâs crust is made up mostly of the common rock-forming minerals combined in various types of rock. Less common and rare minerals, however, are not distributed evenly throughout the crust. Instead, there are several processes that concentrate minerals in deposits. Many valuable minerals are found in or near areas of volcanic activity and mountain building. How Minerals Form - Review Complete the flowchart below by filling in the blanks. 1._________________ heats water underground. â 2. _________________ dissolve in the hot water to form solutions. â These solutions follow cracks within the rock. â Elements and compounds leave the solutions during cooling and 3. _________________ as minerals. â The minerals form a narrow channel or slab in the rock called a(n) 4. .____________________ Answer the following questions in the spaces provided. 5. In general, what are the two ways in which minerals form? ______________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 6. Describe conditions in which large and small crystals are likely to form.____________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 7. How do minerals form near the mid-ocean ridge? ______________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 8. Describe how halite deposits form. _________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Vocabulary - Define the following words: 11.Mineral___________________________________________________________ 12.Inorganic__________________________________________________________ 13.Crystal____________________________________________________________ 14.Luster____________________________________________________________ 15.Hardness__________________________________________________________ 16.Streak____________________________________________________________ 17.Density___________________________________________________________ 18.Fracture__________________________________________________________ Mineral Resources How are minerals used? What are the three types of mines? How are ores processed to obtain metals? Minerals are the source of metals, gemstones, and other materials used to make many products. Usually, a gemstone is a hard, colorful mineral that has a brilliant or glassy luster. People value gemstones for their color, luster, durability, and rarity. A cut and polished gemstone is called a gem. Gems are used mainly for jewelry. They are also used for mechanical parts and as abrasives. Some minerals are the sources of metals such as aluminum, iron, copper, and silver. Metals are useful because they can be stretched into wire, flattened into sheets, and hammered or molded without breaking. Metal tools and machinery, the metal filament in a light bulb, and the steel girders used to frame buildings all began as minerals. There are many other useful minerals besides gemstones and metals. People use materials from minerals in foods, medicines, fertilizers, and building materials. A rock that contains a metal or economically useful mineral is called an ore. A metal usually occurs as a mineral that is a compound of that metal and other elements. A prospector is anyone who searches, or prospects, for an ore deposit. Geologists prospect for ores by looking for certain features on Earthâs surface. In one technique, they set off explosions below ground to create shock waves. The echoes of these shock waves are used to map the location, size, and shape of an ore deposit. Maps of ore deposits help miners decide how to mine, or remove, the ore from the ground. There are three types of mines: strip mines, open-pit mines, and shaft mines. In strip mining, earthmoving equipment scrapes away soil to expose the ore. Miners dig open-pit mines to remove ore deposits that start near the surface but extend deep underground. For ore deposits that occur in veins, miners dig shaft mines, which often have a network of tunnels that extend deep into the ground. Mining for metals and other minerals can harm the environment. Strip mining and open-pit mining leave scars on the land. Waste materials from mining can pollute rivers and lakes. Ores must be processed before the metals they contain can be used. After miners remove ore from a mine, smelting is necessary to remove the metal from the ore. In the process of smelting, an ore is melted to separate the useful metal from other elements the ore contains. In general, smelting involves mixing an ore with other substances and then heating the mixture to a very high temperature. The heat melts the metal in the ore and also causes the metal to separate from the oxygen with which it is combined. Metalworkers can then pour off the molten metal. After smelting, additional processing is needed to remove impurities. Two or more metals may be mixed together to form an alloy. For example, steel is an alloy of iron that is harder than pure iron. Mineral Resources Review Fill in the blanks in the table below. Mineral(s) Use(s) 1 tools, machinery, light-bulb filaments, steel girders 2 jewelry, decoration, mechanical parts, abrasives 3 glass, electronic equipment 4 wallboard, cement, stucco Answer the following questions in the spaces provided. 5. What are the three types of mines? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 6. Describe the smelting of iron ore. ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 7. Why are alloys useful? Describe an example. ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Vocabulary Fill in the blank to complete each statement. 8. A(n) is a solid mixture of two or more metals. _______________________________ 9. A(n) ._____________ is a rock that contains a metal or economically useful mineral 10. A process in which an ore is melted to separate the useful metal from other elements the ore contains is called _____________________________________ Define the following words: ore_______________________________________________________________ metal_____________________________________________________________ nonmetal__________________________________________________________ Gemstone__________________________________________________________Properties of Minerals What are the characteristics of a mineral? How are minerals identified? A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid that has a crystal structure and a definite chemical composition. For a substance to be considered a mineral, it must have all five of these characteristics. Geologists have identified more than 3,000 different minerals. Of these, only about 100 are common. About 20 minerals make up most of the rocks of Earthâs crust. These minerals are known as rock forming minerals. To be classified as a mineral, a substance must occur naturally in Earthâs crust. A mineral must also be inorganic. This means that the mineral cannot arise from materials that were once part of a living thing. A mineral is always a solid, with a definite volume and shape. The particles of a mineral line up in a pattern that repeats over and over again. The repeating pattern of a mineralâs particles forms a solid called a crystal. All minerals have a characteristic crystal structure. A mineral has a definite chemical compositionâit always contains certain elements in definite amounts. An element is a substance composed of a single kind of atom. The vast majority of minerals are compounds. In a compound, two or more elements are combined so that the elements no longer have distinct properties. Some elements occur in nature in a pure form. These, such as silver and gold, are considered to be minerals. Each mineral has its own specific properties that can be used to identify it. The Mohs hardness scale ranks ten minerals from softest to hardest. The color of a mineral can be used to identify minerals that always have their own characteristic color. The streak of a mineral is the color of its powder. Even though the color of a mineral may vary, its streak does not. Another simple test is a mineralâs luster, the term used to describe how a mineral reflects light from its surface. Each mineral has a characteristic density. No matter what the size of a mineral sample, the density of that mineral always remains the same. The crystals of each mineral grow to form that mineralâs particular crystal shape. Geologists classify these shapes into six groups according to the number and angle of the faces. The way a mineral breaks apart can help to identify it. A mineral that splits easily along flat surfaces has the property called cleavage. Most minerals do not split apart evenly. Instead, they have a property called fracture. Fracture describes how a mineral looks when it breaks apart. Some minerals can be identified by special properties. Minerals that glow under ultraviolet light have a property known as fluorescence. Magnetism occurs naturally in a few minerals, such as magnetite. Uraninite and a few other minerals are radioactive. Calcite gives off carbon dioxide when a drop of vinegar is placed on it. A few minerals, such as quartz, have electrical properties. Properties of Minerals - Review Fill in the blanks in the table below. Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper. 5. List the five characteristics necessary for a substance to be a mineral.______________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ 6. Explain why each mineral has its own properties, different from every other mineral. _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Vocabulary Match each term with its definition by writing the letter of the correct definition on the line beside the term in the left column. _________________ 7. cleavage _________________ 8. streak _________________ 9. luster _________________ 10. compound _________________ 11. fluorescence _________________ 12. fracture _________________ 13. Mohs hardness scale _________________ 14. crystal _________________ 15. element a. the property of glowing under ultraviolet light b. how a mineral reflects light from its surface c. a substance composed of a single kind of atom d. the property of splitting evenly along flat surfaces e. two or more elements chemically joined f. how a mineral breaks apart when it does not split evenly g. the repeating pattern of a mineralâs particles in a solid h. the color of a mineralâs powder i. a ranking of minerals from softest to hardest How Minerals Form What are the processes by which minerals form The minerals that people use today have been forming deep in Earthâs crust or on the surface for several billion years. In general, minerals can form in two ways: through crystallization of melted materials, and through crystallization of materials dissolved in water. Crystallization is the process by which atoms are arranged to form a material with a crystal shape. Minerals can form as hot magma cools deep inside the crust, or as lava hardens on the surface. When these liquids cool to the solid state, they form mineral crystals. The size of these crystals depends on several factors. The rate at which magma cools, the amount of gas magma contains, and the chemical composition of magma all affect crystal size. Slow cooling leads to the formation of minerals with large crystals. If the crystals remain undisturbed while cooling deep below the surface, they grow according to a regular pattern. Magma closer to the surface loses heat energy much faster than magma that hardens deep below ground. With rapid cooling, there is no time for magma to form large crystals. If magma erupts to the surface, the lava will also cool quickly and form minerals with small crystals. Sometimes, the elements that form a mineral dissolve in hot water. These dissolved minerals form solutions. A solution is a mixture in which one substance dissolves in another. When a hot water solution begins to cool, the elements and compounds leave the solution and crystallize as minerals. Pure metals that crystallize underground from hot water solutions often form veins. A vein is a narrow channel or slab of a mineral that is sharply different from the surrounding rock. Deep underground, solutions of hot water and metals often follow fractures, or cracks, within the rock. Then the metals crystallize into veins. Many minerals form from solutions at places where tectonic plates spread apart along the mid-ocean ridge. The hot magma heats ocean water that seeps underground. The heated water dissolves minerals. When the solution billows out of vents called âchimneys,â minerals crystallize in the cold sea. Minerals can also form when solutions evaporate. For example, thick deposits of the mineral halite, or table salt, formed over millions of years when ancient seas slowly evaporated. In addition to halite, other useful minerals form by the evaporation of seawater, including gypsum, calcite crystals, and minerals containing potassium. Earthâs crust is made up mostly of the common rock-forming minerals combined in various types of rock. Less common and rare minerals, however, are not distributed evenly throughout the crust. Instead, there are several processes that concentrate minerals in deposits. Many valuable minerals are found in or near areas of volcanic activity and mountain building. How Minerals Form - Review Complete the flowchart below by filling in the blanks. 1._________________ heats water underground. â 2. _________________ dissolve in the hot water to form solutions. â These solutions follow cracks within the rock. â Elements and compounds leave the solutions during cooling and 3. _________________ as minerals. â The minerals form a narrow channel or slab in the rock called a(n) 4. .____________________ Answer the following questions in the spaces provided. 5. In general, what are the two ways in which minerals form? ______________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 6. Describe conditions in which large and small crystals are likely to form.____________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 7. How do minerals form near the mid-ocean ridge? ______________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 8. Describe how halite deposits form. _________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Vocabulary - Define the following words: 11.Mineral___________________________________________________________ 12.Inorganic__________________________________________________________ 13.Crystal____________________________________________________________ 14.Luster____________________________________________________________ 15.Hardness__________________________________________________________ 16.Streak____________________________________________________________ 17.Density___________________________________________________________ 18.Fracture__________________________________________________________ Mineral Resources How are minerals used? What are the three types of mines? How are ores processed to obtain metals? Minerals are the source of metals, gemstones, and other materials used to make many products. Usually, a gemstone is a hard, colorful mineral that has a brilliant or glassy luster. People value gemstones for their color, luster, durability, and rarity. A cut and polished gemstone is called a gem. Gems are used mainly for jewelry. They are also used for mechanical parts and as abrasives. Some minerals are the sources of metals such as aluminum, iron, copper, and silver. Metals are useful because they can be stretched into wire, flattened into sheets, and hammered or molded without breaking. Metal tools and machinery, the metal filament in a light bulb, and the steel girders used to frame buildings all began as minerals. There are many other useful minerals besides gemstones and metals. People use materials from minerals in foods, medicines, fertilizers, and building materials. A rock that contains a metal or economically useful mineral is called an ore. A metal usually occurs as a mineral that is a compound of that metal and other elements. A prospector is anyone who searches, or prospects, for an ore deposit. Geologists prospect for ores by looking for certain features on Earthâs surface. In one technique, they set off explosions below ground to create shock waves. The echoes of these shock waves are used to map the location, size, and shape of an ore deposit. Maps of ore deposits help miners decide how to mine, or remove, the ore from the ground. There are three types of mines: strip mines, open-pit mines, and shaft mines. In strip mining, earthmoving equipment scrapes away soil to expose the ore. Miners dig open-pit mines to remove ore deposits that start near the surface but extend deep underground. For ore deposits that occur in veins, miners dig shaft mines, which often have a network of tunnels that extend deep into the ground. Mining for metals and other minerals can harm the environment. Strip mining and open-pit mining leave scars on the land. Waste materials from mining can pollute rivers and lakes. Ores must be processed before the metals they contain can be used. After miners remove ore from a mine, smelting is necessary to remove the metal from the ore. In the process of smelting, an ore is melted to separate the useful metal from other elements the ore contains. In general, smelting involves mixing an ore with other substances and then heating the mixture to a very high temperature. The heat melts the metal in the ore and also causes the metal to separate from the oxygen with which it is combined. Metalworkers can then pour off the molten metal. After smelting, additional processing is needed to remove impurities. Two or more metals may be mixed together to form an alloy. For example, steel is an alloy of iron that is harder than pure iron. Mineral Resources Review Fill in the blanks in the table below. Mineral(s) Use(s) 1 tools, machinery, light-bulb filaments, steel girders 2 jewelry, decoration, mechanical parts, abrasives 3 glass, electronic equipment 4 wallboard, cement, stucco Answer the following questions in the spaces provided. 5. What are the three types of mines? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 6. Describe the smelting of iron ore. ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 7. Why are alloys useful? Describe an example. ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Vocabulary Fill in the blank to complete each statement. 8. A(n) is a solid mixture of two or more metals. _______________________________ 9. A(n) ._____________ is a rock that contains a metal or economically useful mineral 10. A process in which an ore is melted to separate the useful metal from other elements the ore contains is called _____________________________________ Define the following words: ore_______________________________________________________________ metal_____________________________________________________________ nonmetal__________________________________________________________ Gemstone__________________________________________________________ How are igneous rocks formed? Igneous rocks are formed when melted rock cools and solidifies. Melted rock may come in the form of magma, when it is found underneath the Earthâs surface. It can also come in the form of lava, when it is released unto the Earthâs surface during a volcanic eruption. Some examples of igneous rocks are granite, scoria, pumice, and obsidian. Pumice, for instance, is formed when lava made up of melted rock, water, and trapped gas is ejected from a volcano during a violent eruption. As the ejected material undergoes very rapid cooling and depressurization, some of the trapped gas escape, leaving holes and gas bubbles on the solidified material. How are sedimentary rocks formed? Sedimentary rocks start forming when soil and other materials on the Earthâs surface are eroded and finally settle down, forming one layer of sediments. As time passes, more and more materials get eroded and settle on the older layers. Thus, layer upon layer is formed. The lower layers undergo intense pressure due to the weight of the upper layers, eventually evolving into rocks. Some examples of sedimentary rocks are sandstone, limestone, shale, conglomerate, and gypsum. Sandstone, for instance, is a result of depositions of sand from beaches and rivers. You can find them mostly in deltas, since this is where the rivers flow into the ocean. How are metamorphic rocks formed? To metamorphose or simply to morph means âto change in formâ. Metamorphic rocks are actually products of rocks that have undergone changes. Thus, a metamorphic rock may have originally been an igneous, sedimentary, or even another metamorphic rock. The changes occur when the original rocks are subjected to extreme heat and pressure beneath the Earthâs surface. They may also occur when the the original rocks are caught in the middle of two colliding tectonic boundaries. Some examples of metamorphic rocks are marble, slate, schist and gneiss. Marble, for instance is the result of the metamorphism of limestone and dolostone. When limestone metamorphoses, its calcite grains grow and interlock with one another. As such, marble is denser and harder compared to limestone. What is Atomic Number and Atomic Weight? Atomic number of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. Since atoms are electrically neutral, the number of protons equal the number of electrons in an atom. Atomic weight (or relative atomic mass) of an element is the number of times an atom of that element is heavier than an atom of hydrogen. Mass number of an element is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. Clay What is clay? Here are further guidelines. Minerals by Name A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A ACANTHITE (Silver Sulfide) ACTINOLITE (Calcium Magnesium Iron Silicate Hydroxide) ADAMITE (Zinc Arsenate Hydroxide) AEGIRINE (Sodium Iron Silicate) AESCHYNITE (Yttrium Calcium Iron Thorium Titanium Niobium Oxide Hydroxide) AGATE (variety of Quartz - Silicon Oxide) AJOITE (Hydrated Potassium Sodium Copper Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide) ALBITE (Sodium Aluminum Silicate) ALEXANDRITE (variety of Chrysoberyl- Beryllium Aluminum Oxide) ALLANITE (Calcium Cerium Lanthanum Yttrium Aluminum Iron Silicate Hydroxide) ALLUVIAL (a type of unconsolidated sediments) ALMANDINE (Iron Aluminum Silicate) ALTAITE (Lead Telluride) ALUMINUM (Al) ALUNITE (Potassium Aluminum Sulfate Hydroxide) AMBER (Succinite: fossilized tree resin) AMBLYGONITE (Lithium Sodium Aluminum Phosphate Fluoride Hydroxide) AMETHYST (variety of Quartz- Silicon Oxide) ANALCIME (Hydrated Sodium Aluminum Silicate) ANAPAITE (Hydrated Calcium Iron Phosphate) ANATASE (Titanium Oxide) ANDALUSITE (Aluminum Silicate) ANDERSONITE (Hydrated Sodium Calcium Uranyl Carbonate) ANDESINE (Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate) ANDESITE (an extrusive igneous rock) ANDRADITE (Calcium Iron Silicate) ANGELITE (trade name for Anhydrite) ANGLESITE (Lead Sulfate) ANHYDRITE (Calcium Sulfate) ANKERITE (Calcium Iron Carbonate) ANNABERGITE (Hydrated Nickel Arsenate) ANORTHITE (Calcium Aluminum Silicate) ANORTHOSITE (a plutonic igneous rock) ANTHOPHYLLITE (Magnesium Iron Silicate Hydroxide) ANTIMONY (Sb) ANTLERITE (Copper Sulfate Hydroxide) APATITE (Calcium (Fluoro, Chloro, Hydroxyl) Phosphate) APOPHYLLITE (Hydrated Potassium Calcium Silicate Hydroxide Flouride) AQUAMARINE (variety of Beryl, Berylium Aluminum Silicate) ARAGONITE (Calcium Carbonate) ARFVEDSONITE (Sodium Iron Magnesium Silicate Hydroxide) ARGENTITE (Silver Sulfide) ARGYRODITE (Silver Germanium Sulfide) ARSENIC (As) ARSENOPYRITE (Iron Arsenide Sulfide) ARSENTSUMEBITE (Lead Copper Arsenate Sulfate) ARTHURITE (Hydrated Copper Iron Arsenate Phosphate Sulfate) ARTINITE (Hydrated Magnesium Carbonate Hydroxide) ASTEROIDS (primordial stony or metallic rocks in space) ASTROPHYLLITE (Potassium Iron Titanium Silicate Hydroxide) ATACAMITE (Copper Chloride Hydroxide) AUGELITE (Aluminum Phosphate Hydroxide) AUGITE (Calcium Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Iron Titanium Silicate) AURICHALCITE (Zinc Copper Carbonate Hydroxide) AUSTINITE (Calcium Zinc Arsenate Hydroxide) AUTUNITE (Hydrated Calcium Uranyl Phosphate) AXINITE (Calcium Iron Magnesium Manganese Aluminum Boro-Silicate Hydroxide) AZURITE (Copper Carbonate Hydroxide) B BABINGTONITE (Calcium Iron Manganese Silicate Hydroxide) BAKERITE (Hydrated Calcium Boro-silicate Hydroxide) BARATOVITE (Potassium Lithium Calcium Titanium Zirconium Silicate Fluoride) BARITE (Barium Sulfate) BASALT (the most common igneous rock) BASTNASITE (Cerium Lanthanum Yttrium Carbonate Fluoride) BAUMHAUERITE (Lead Arsenic Sulfide) BAYLDONITE (Hydrated Copper Lead Arsenate Hydroxide) BECQUERELITE (Hydrated Calcium Uranyl Oxide Hydroxide) BENITOITE (Barium Titanium Silicate) BERAUNITE (Hydrated Iron Phosphate Hydroxide) BERLINITE (Aluminum Phosphate) BERTHIERITE (Iron Antimony Sulfide) BERTRANDITE (Beryllium Silicate Hydroxide) BERYL (Berylium Aluminum Silicate) BERYLLONITE (Sodium Beryllium Phosphate) BETAFITE (Calcium Sodium Uranium Titanium Niobium Tantalum Oxide Hydroxide Fluoride) BEUDANTITE (Lead Iron Arsenate Sulfate Hydroxide) BIDEAUXITE (Lead Silver Chloride Fluoride Hydroxide) BIF (Banded Iron Formation aka Taconite) BINDHEIMITE (Lead Antimony Oxide) BIOTITE (Potassium Iron Magnesium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide Fluoride) BISMUTH (Bi) BISMUTHINITE (Bismuth Sulfide) BIXBYITE (Manganese Iron Oxide) BLODITE (Hydrated Sodium Magnesium Sulfate) BLOODSTONE (variety of Chalcedony) BOLEITE (Hydrated Lead Copper Silver Chloride Hydroxide) BOLTWOODITE (Hydrated Potassium Uranyl Silicate Hydroxide) BORACITE (Magnesium Borate Chloride) BORAX (Hydrated Sodium Borate) BORNITE (Copper Iron Sulfide) BOULANGERITE (Lead Antimony Sulfide) BOURNONITE (Copper Lead Antimony Sulfide) BRANNERITE (Uranium Calcium Titanium Iron Oxide) BRASS (Copper Zinc Alloy) BRAZILIANITE (Sodium Aluminum Phosphate Hydroxide) BRECCIA (a clastic sedimentary rock) BROCHANTITE (Copper Sulfate Hydroxide) BROOKITE (Titanium Oxide) BRUCITE (Magnesium Hydroxide) BUERGERITE (Sodium Iron Aluminum Boro-silicate Oxide Fluoride) BURBANKITE (Sodium Calcium Strontium Barium Cerium Carbonate) BUTTGENBACHITE (Hydrated Copper Nitrate Chloride Hydroxide) BYTOWNITE (Calcium Sodium Aluminum Silicate) C CACOXENITE (Hydrated Iron Aluminum Phosphate Oxide Hydroxide) CALAVERITE (Gold Telluride) CALCIOVOLBORTHITE (Calcium Copper Vanadate Hydroxide) CALCITE (Calcium Carbonate) CALEDONITE (Copper Lead Carbonate Sulfate Hydroxide) CALOMEL (Mercury Chloride) CANCRINITE (Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate Carbonate) CARBOCERNAITE (Calcium Sodium Strontium Cerium Barium Carbonate) CARBONATES (Class) CARLETONITE (Hydrated Potassium Sodium Calcium Carbonate Silicate Fluoride Hydroxide) CARNALLITE (Hydrated Potasium Magnesium Chloride) CARNELIAN (variety of Quartz - Silicon Oxide) CARNOTITE (Hydrated Potassium Uranyl Vanadate) CASSITERITE (Tin Oxide) CATAPLEIITE (Hydrated Sodium Zirconium Silicate) CAVANSITE (Hydrated Calcium Vanadium Silicate) CELESTITE (Strontium Sulfate) CERUSSITE (Lead Carbonate) CHABAZITE (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Silicate) CHALCANTHITE (Hydrated Copper Sulfate) CHALCEDONY (variety of Quartz - Silicon Oxide) CHALCOCITE (Copper Sulfide) CHALCOPHYLLITE (Hydrated Copper Aluminum Sulphate Arsenate Hydroxide) CHALCOPYRITE (Copper Iron Sulfide) CHALCOSIDERITE (Hydrated Copper Iron Phosphate Hydroxide) CHALCOTRICHITE (variety of Cuprite, Copper Oxide) CHALK (a sedimentary rock) CHAROITE (Hydrated Sodium Calcium Barium Strontium Silicate Hydroxide Fluoride) CHENGDEITE (Iridium Iron) CHILDRENITE (Hydrated Iron Manganese Aluminum Phosphate Hydroxide) CHKALOVITE (Sodium Beryllium Silicate) CHLORAPATITE (the chlorine rich apatite) CHLORARGYRITE (Silver Chloride) CHLORITE (Iron Magnesium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide) CHONDRODITE (Magnesium Iron Silicate Fluoride Hydroxide) CHROMITE (Magnesium Iron Chromium Oxide) CHROMIUM (Cr) CHRYSOBERYL (Berylium Aluminum Oxide) CHRYSOCOLLA (Hydrated Copper Silicate) CHRYSOPRASE (variety of Quartz - Silicon Oxide) CHRYSOTILE (variety of Serpentine, Magnesium Iron Silicate Hydroxide) CHURCHITE (Hydrated Yttrium Erbium Phosphate) CINNABAR (Mercury Sulfide) CITRINE (variety of Quartz- Silicon Oxide) CLAUSTHALITE (Lead Selenide) CLAYS (Group) CLEAVELANDITE (variety of Albite, Sodium Aluminum Silicate) CLIFFORDITE (Uranium Tellurate) CLINOCHLORE (Magnesium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide) CLINOCLASE (Copper Arsenate Hydroxide) CLINOHEDRITE (Hydrated Calcium Zinc Silicate) CLINOHUMITE (Magnesium Iron Silicate Fluoride Hydroxide) CLINOPTILOLITE (Hydrated Sodium Potassium Calcium Aluminum Silicate) COAL (an organic sedimentary rock) COBALT (Co) COBALTITE (Group) COBALTITE (Cobalt Arsenic Sulfide) COBALTOCALCITE (alternate name for Sphaerocobaltite) COCONINOITE (Hydrated Iron Aluminum Uranyl Phosphate Sulfate Hydroxide) COESITE (Silicon Dioxide) COLEMANITE (Hydrated Calcium Borate Hydroxide) COLLINSITE (Hydrated Calcium Magnesium Iron Phosphate) COLUMBITE (Iron Magnesium Manganese Niobium Tantalum Oxide) COMETS (primordial icy rocks in space) CONICHALCITE (Calcium Copper Arsenate Hydroxide) CONNELLITE (Hydrated Copper Sulfate Chloride Hydroxide) COPIAPITE (Hydrated Iron Magnesium Sulfate Hydroxide) COPPER (Cu) CORDIERITE (Magnesium Aluminum Silicate) CORDYLITE (Barium Cerium Lanthanum Carbonate Fluoride) CORNETITE (Copper Phosphate Hydroxide) CORNWALLITE (Copper Arsenate Hydroxide) CORUNDUM (Aluminum Oxide) COVELLITE (Copper Sulfide) CREEDITE (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Sulfate Fluoride Hydroxide) CRISTOBALITE (Silicon Dioxide) CROCOITE (Lead Chromate) CROCIDOLITE (asbestiform variety of Riebeckite, Sodium Iron Magnesium Silicate Hydroxide) CRYOLITE (Sodium Aluminum Fluoride) CUBANITE (Copper Iron Sulfide) CUMENGITE (Lead Copper Chloride Hydroxide) CUMMINGTONITE (Magnesium Iron Silicate Hydroxide) CUPRITE (Copper Oxide) CUPROADAMITE (Copper Zinc Arsenate Hydroxide) CUPROSKLODOWSKITE (Hydrated Copper Uranyl Silicate) CYANOTRICHITE (Hydrated Copper Aluminum Sulfate Hydroxide) CYLINDRITE (Iron Lead Tin Antimony Sulfide) D DANBURITE (Calcium Boro-Silicate) DATOLITE (Group) DATOLITE (Calcium Boro-Silicate Hydroxide) DESCLOIZITE (Lead Zinc Vanadate Hydroxide) DEMANTOID (variety of Andradite garnet) DEPOSITS (unconsolidated sediments) DIABOLEITE (Lead Copper Chloride Hydroxide) DIAMOND (Carbon) DIGENITE (Copper Sulfide) DIOPSIDE (Calcium Magnesium Silicate) DIOPTASE (Copper Silicate Hydroxide) DOLOMITE (Calcium Magnesium Carbonate) DOMEYKITE (Copper Arsenide) DRAVITE (complex Sodium Magnesium Iron Boro-Aluminum Silicate) DUFRENITE (Hydrated Iron Phosphate Hydroxide) DUFTITE (Lead Calcium Copper Zinc Arsenate Hydroxide) DUMORTIERITE (Aluminum Borate Silicate Oxide) DUNDASITE (Hydrated Lead Aluminum Carbonate Hydroxide) DYSCRASITE (Silver Antimonide) E EDENITE (Sodium Calcium Magnesium Iron Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide) EDINGTONITE (Hydrated Barium Aluminum Silicate) ELBAITE (Sodium Lithium Aluminum Boro-Silicate Hydroxide) ELEMENTS (Class) ELPIDITE (Hydrated Sodium Zirconium Silicate) EMERALD (variety of Beryl- Berylium Aluminum Silicate) EMMONSITE (Hydrated Iron Tellurite) EMPLECTITE (Copper Bismuth Sulfide) ENARGITE (Copper Arsenic Sulfide) ENSTATITE (Magnesium Silicate) EOSPHORITE (Hydrated Manganese Aluminum Phosphate Hydroxide) EPIDIDYMITE (Sodium Beryllium Silicate Hydroxide) EPIDOTE (Calcium Iron Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide) EPISTILBITE (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Silicate) EPSOMITE (Hydrated Magnesium Sulfate) ERIONITE (Hydrated Potassium Sodium Calcium Magnesium Aluminum Silicate) ERYTHRITE (Hydrated Cobalt Arsenate) ESPERITE (Calcium Lead Zinc Silicate) ETTRINGITE (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Sulfate Hydroxide) EUCLASE (Beryllium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide) EUCRYPTITE (Lithium Aluminum Silicate) EUDIALYTE (Sodium Calcium Cerium Iron Manganese Zirconium Silicate Hydroxide Chloride) EUDIDYMITE (Sodium Beryllium Silicate Hydroxide) EUXENITE (Yttrium Calcium Erbium Lanthanum Cerium Uranium Thorium Niobium Tantalum Titanium Oxide) F FAYALITE (Magnesium Iron Silicate) FEDORITE (Hydrated Sodium Potassium Calcium Silicate Fluoride Chloride Hydroxide) FELDSPAR (Group) FERBERITE (Iron Tungstate) FERRO-EDENITE (Sodium Calcium Iron Magnesium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide) FERROGLAUCOPHANE (Sodium Iron Magnesium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide) FIEDLERITE (Lead Chloride Fluoride Hydroxide) FLINT (variety of Quartz - Silicon Oxide) FLUORAPATITE (the fluorine rich apatite) FLUORITE (Calcium Fluoride) FLUORRICHTERITE (Sodium Calcium Magnesium Iron Silicate Hydroxide Fluoride) FORSTERITE (Iron Magnesium Silicate) FRANCKEITE (Lead Tin Iron Antimony Sulfide) FRANKLINITE (Zinc Manganese Iron Oxide) FUCHSITE (the chromium-rich muscovite) FULGARITE (lightning created Lechatelierite, Silicon Dioxide) G GADOLINITE (Yttrium Iron Beryllium Silicate) GAHNITE (Zinc Aluminum Oxide) GALENA (Group) GALENA (Lead Sulfide) GARNET (Group) GASPEITE (Nickel Magnesium Iron Carbonate) GAYLUSSITE (Hydrated Sodium Calcium Carbonate) GEMSTONES (Class) GEODES (generally hollow sedimentary rocks) GERSDORFFITE (Nickel Arsenide Sulfide) GIBBSITE (Aluminum Hydroxide) GLAUBERITE (Sodium Calcium Sulfate) GLAUCOPHANE (Sodium Magnesium Iron Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide) GMELINITE (Hydrated Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate) GOETHITE (Hydrated Iron Oxide) GOLD (Au) GOOSECREEKITE (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Silicate) GORMANITE (Hydrated Iron Magnesium Aluminum Phosphate Hydroxide) GOSHENITE (variety of Beryl, Berylium Aluminum Silicate) GRAEMITE (Hydrated Copper Tellurate) GRANITE (an igneous rock with visible crystals) GRAPHITE (Carbon) GRATONITE (Lead Arsenic Sulfide) GREENOCKITE (Cadmium Sulfide) GROSSULAR (Calcium Aluminum Silicate) GYPSUM (Hydrated Calcium Sulfate) GYROLITE (Hydrated Calcium Silicate Hydroxide) H HACKMANITE (variety of Sodalite, Sodium Aluminum Silicate Chloride) HALIDES (Class) HALITE (Sodium Chloride) HANKSITE (Potassium Sodium Sulfate Carbonate Chloride) HARDYSTONITE (Calcium Zinc Silicate) HARMOTOME (Hydrated Barium Potasium Aluminum Silicate) HAUSMANNITE (Manganese Oxide) HEDENBERGITE (Calcium Iron Silicate) HEDYPHANE (Lead Calcium Arsenate Chloride) HELIODOR (variety of Beryl, Berylium Aluminum Silicate) HEMATITE (Iron Oxide) HEMIMORPHITE (Hydrated Zinc Silicate Hydroxide) HERDERITE (Calcium Beryllium Phosphate Fluoride Hydroxide) HESSITE (Silver Telluride) HESSONITE (variety of Grossular garnet) HEULANDITE (Hydrated Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate) HIDDENITE (variety of Spodumene) HILAIRITE (Hydrated Sodium Zirconium Silicate) HINSDALITE (Lead Strontium Aluminum Phosphate Sulfate Hydroxide) HODGKINSONITE (Manganese Zinc Silicate Hydroxide) HOPEITE (Hydrated Zinc Phosphate) HORNBLEND (Calcium Sodium Magnesium Iron Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide) HOWLITE (Calcium Boro-Silicate Hydroxide) HUEBNERITE (Manganese Tungstate) HUMITE (Magnesium Iron Silicate Fluoride Hydroxide) HUREAULITE (Hydrated Manganese Phosphate Hydroxide) HYDROBORACITE (Hydrated Calcium Magnesium Borate) HYDROMAGNESITE (Hydrated Magnesium Carbonate Hydroxide) HYDROXYLAPATITE (the hydroxyl group rich apatite) HYDROXYLBASTNASITE (Cerium Lanthanum Neodymium Carbonate Hydroxide Fluoride) HYDROZINCITE (Hydrated Zinc Carbonate) HYPERSTHENE (Magnesium Iron Silicate) I ICE (Hydrogen Oxide) IDOCRASE (alternate name of Vesuvianite) IGNEOUS (rocks that solidified from magma) ILVAITE (Calcium Iron Silicate Hydroxide) ILMENITE (Iron Titanium Oxide) INDICOLITE (blue variety of Elbaite tourmaline) INESITE (Hydrated Calcium Manganese Silicate Hydroxide) IOLITE (variety of Cordierite) IRON (Fe) J JADE (gem variety of both Jadeite and Nephrite (variety of Actinolite)) JADEITE (Sodium Iron Aluminum Silicate) JAMESONITE (Lead Iron Antimony Sulfide) JAROSITE (Potassium Iron Sulfate Hydroxide) JASPER (variety of Quartz - Silicon Oxide) JOAQUINITE (Barium Sodium Cesium Titanium Niobium Iron Silicate Hydroxide Fluoride) JORDANITE (Lead Arsenic Antimony Sulfide) K KAEMMERERITE (the chromium rich variety of cliniclore) KAOLINITE (Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide) KERMESITE (Antimony Oxysulfide) KERNITE (Hydrated Sodium Borate) KIDWELLITE (Hydrated Sodium Iron Phosphate Hydroxide) KIESERITE (Hydrated Magnesium Sulfate) KINOITE (Hydrated Calcium Copper Silicate) KNAUFITE (alternate name for VOLBORTHITE, Copper Vanadate Hydroxide) KOLWEZITE (Copper Cobalt Carbonate Hydroxide) KORNERUPINE (Magnesium Aluminum Iron Boro-silicate Hydroxide) KOTTIGITE (Hydrated Zinc Arsenate) KOVDORSKITE (Hydrated Magnesium Carbonate Phosphate Hydroxide) KTENASITE (Hydrated Copper Zinc Sulfate Hydroxide) KULANITE (Barium Iron Manganese Magnesium Aluminum Phosphate Hydroxide) KUNZITE (variety of Spodumene) KUPLETSKITE (Potassium Sodium Manganese Iron Titanium Niobium Silicate Hydroxide) KUTNOHORITE (Calcium Magnesium Carbonate) KYANITE (Aluminum Silicate) L LABRADORITE (Calcium Sodium Aluminum Silicate) LARDERELLITE (Ammonium Borate Hydroxide) LARIMAR (variety of Pectolite) LAUEITE (Hydrated Manganese Iron Phosphate Hydroxide) LAUMONTITE (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Silicate) LAURIONITE (Lead Chloride Hydroxide) LAZULITE (Magnesium Aluminum Phosphate Hydroxide) LAZURITE (Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate Sulfate) LEAD (Pb) LEADHILLITE (Lead Sulfate Carbonate Hydroxide) LECHATELIERITE (Silicon Dioxide) LEGRANDITE (Hydrated Zinc Arsenate Hydroxide) LEIFITE (Hydrated Sodium Beryllium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide Fluoride) LEPIDOLITE (Potassium Lithium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide Fluoride) LEUCITE (Potasium Aluminum Silicate) LEUCOCHALCITE (variety of Olivenite) LEUCOPHANITE (Sodium Calcium Beryllium Silicate Fluoride) LIBETHENITE (Copper Phosphate Hydroxide) LIMESTONE (a common sedimentary rock) LIMONITE (Hydrated Iron Oxide Hydroxide) LINARITE (Lead Copper Sulfate hydroxide) LINNAEITE (Cobalt Sulfide) LIROCONITE (Hydrated Copper Aluminum Arsenate Hydroxide) LITHIOPHILITE (Lithium Manganese Iron Phosphate) LOLLINGITE (Iron Arsenide) LORENZENITE (Sodium Titanium Silicate) LARIMAR (variety of Pectolite) LUDLAMITE (Hydrated Iron Magnesium Manganese Phosphate) M MACPHERSONITE (Lead Sulfate Carbonate Hydroxide) MAGNESITE (Magnesium Carbonate) MAGNETITE (Iron Oxide) MALACHITE (Hydrated Copper Carbonate) MANGANBABINGTONITE (Calcium Manganese Iron Silicate Hydroxide) MANGANESE (Mn) MANGANITE (Manganese Oxide Hydroxide) MARBLE (a metamorphic rock from limestone) MARCASITE (Group) MARCASITE (Iron Sulfide) MASSICOT (Lead Oxide) MELANITE (the black variety of Andradite Garnet) MELANOPHLOGITE (Silicon Oxide with organic compounds) MELANTERITE (Hydrated Iron Sulfate) MENEGHINITE (Lead Antimony Sulfide) MERCURY (Hg) MESOLITE (Hydrated Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate) META-ANKOLEITE (Hydrated Potassium Uranyl Phosphate) META-AUTUNITE (Hydrated Calcium Uranyl Phosphate) META-TORBERNITE (Hydrated Copper Uranyl Phosphate) META-URANOCIRCITE (Hydrated Barium Uranyl Phosphate) META-VARISCITE (Hydrated Aluminum Phosphate) META-ZEUNERITE (Hydrated Copper Uranyl Arsenate) METAMORPHIC (rocks formed via heat and pressure) METEORITES (primordial rocks that fell to Earth) MIARGYRITE (Silver Antimony Sulfide) MICA (Group) MICROCLINE (Potasium Aluminum Silicate) MICROLITE (Calcium Sodium Tantalum Oxide Hydroxide Fluoride) MILARITE (Hydrated Potassium Calcium Aluminum Beryllium Silicate) MILKY_QUARTZ (variety of Quartz) MILLERITE (Nickel Sulfide) MIMETITE (Lead Chloroarsenate) MINASGERAISITE - (Y) (Calcium Yttrium Beryllium Silicate) MINERALOIDS (Class) MINIUM (Lead Oxide) MIXITE (Hydrated Bismuth Copper Arsenate Hydroxide) MOCTEZUMITE (Lead Uranyl Tellurite) MOISSANITE (Silicon Carbide) MOLDAVITE (variety of Tecktite: Meteoric Silica Glass) MOLYBDENUM (the element Molybdenum) MOLYBDENITE (Molybdenum Sulfide) MONAZITE (Cerium Lanthanum Thorium Neodymium Yttrium Phosphate) MONTEBRASITE (Lithium Sodium Aluminum Phosphate Hydroxide Fluoride) MONTMORILLONITE (Hydrated Sodium Calcium Aluminum Magnesium Silicate Hydroxide) MOONSTONE (variety of Oligoclase, Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate) MORDENITE (Hydrated Calcium Sodium Potassium Aluminum Silicate) MORGANITE (variety of Beryl, Berylium Aluminum Silicate) MOSCHELLANDSBERGITE (Silver Mercury or Silver Amalgam) MOTTRAMITE (Lead Copper Vanadate Hydroxide) MURMANITE (Hydrated Sodium Titanium Niobium Silicate) MUSCOVITE (Potassium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide Fluoride) N NAGYAGITE (Lead Gold Antimony Bismuth Telluride Sulfide) NAHCOLITE (Sodium Bicarbonate) NARSARSUKITE (Sodium Titanium Iron Silicate Fluoride) NATROJAROSITE (Sodium Iron Sulfate Hydroxide) NATROLITE (Hydrated Sodium Aluminum Silicate) NEALITE (Lead Iron Arsenate Chloride) NEPHELINE (Sodium Potassium Aluminum Silicate) NEPHRITE (variety of Actinolite, Calcium Magnesium Iron Silicate Hydroxide) NEPTUNITE (Potassium Sodium Lithium Iron Manganese Titanium Silicate) NICKEL (the element Nickel) NICKELINE (Nickel Arsenide) NITER (Potasium Nitrate) NITRATINE (Sodium Nitrate) NORBERGITE (Magnesium Silicate Fluoride Hydroxide) O OBSIDIAN (Volcanic Silica Glass) OKENITE (Hydrated Calcium Silicate) OLIGOCLASE (Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate) OLIVINE (Group) OLIVINE (Magnesium Iron Silicate) OLIVENITE (Copper Arsenate Hydroxide) ONYX (variety of Quartz - Silicon Oxide) OPAL (Hydrated Silica) ORGANICS (Class) ORPIMENT (Arsenic Sulfide) ORTHOCLASE (Potasium Aluminum Silicate) OSBORNITE (Titanium Nitride) OSUMILITE (Hydrated Potassium Sodium Iron Magnesium Aluminum Silicate) OTAVITE (Cadmium Carbonate) OXIDES (Class) P v PACHNOLITE (Hydrated Sodium Calcium Aluminum Fluoride) PALYGORSKITE (Hydrated Magnesium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide) PAPAGOITE (Calcium Copper Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide) PARADAMITE (Zinc Arsenate Hydroxide) PARASYMPLESITE (Hydrated Iron Arsenate) PARAVAUXITE (Hydrated Iron Aluminum Phosphate Hydroxide) PARISITE (Calcium Cerium Lanthanum Neodymium Carbonate Fluoride) PECTOLITE (Sodium Calcium Silicate Hydroxide) PENTLANDITE (Iron Nickel Sulfide) PERICLASE (Magnesium Oxide) PERIDOT (variety of Olivine) PEROVSKITE (Calcium Titanium Oxide) PHARMACOLITE (Hydrated Calcium Arsenate Hydroxide) PHARMACOSIDERITE (Hydrated Potassium Iron Arsenate Hydroxide) PHENAKITE (Berylium Silicate) PHILLIPSITE (Hydrated Potasium Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate) PHLOGOPITE (Potassium Magnesium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide) PHOSGENITE (Lead Carbonate Chloride) PHOSPHATES (Class) PHOSPHOPHYLLITE (Hydrated Zinc Iron Manganese Phosphate) PHOSPHURANYLITE (Hydrated Calcium Uranyl Phosphate Hydroxide) PICROMERITE (Hydrated Potassium Magnesium Sulfate) PIRSSONITE (Hydrated Sodium Calcium Carbonate) PLANCHEITE (Hydrated Copper Silicate Hydroxide) PLATINUM (Pt) PLATTNERITE (Lead Oxide) POLYBASITE (Silver Copper Antimony Sulfide) POLYHALITE (Hydrated Potassium Calcium Magnesium Sulfate) POLYLITHIONITE (Potassium Lithium Aluminum Silicate Fluoride) POWELLITE (Calcium Molybdenate) PRASIOLITE (variety of Quartz) PREHNITE (Calcium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide) PRIMORDIAL (rocks formed before the Earth) PROUSTITE (Silver Arsenic Sulfide) PSEUDOBOLEITE (Lead Copper Chloride Hydroxide) PSEUDOBROOKITE (Iron Titanium Oxide) PSEUDOMALACHITE (Copper Phosphate Hydroxide) PSILOMELANE (Manganese Oxide) PUCHERITE (Bismuth Vanadate) PURPURITE (Manganese Phosphate) PYRARGYRITE (Silver Antimony Sulfide) PYRITE (Iron Sulfide) PYROAURITE (Hydrated Magnesium Iron Carbonate Hydroxide) PYROCHLORE (Calcium Sodium Niobium Oxide Hydroxide Fluoride) PYROLUSITE (Manganese Oxide) PYROMORPHITE (Lead Chlorophosphate) PYROPE (Magnesium Aluminum Silicate) PYROPHYLLITE (Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide) PYROXENE (Group) PYRRHOTITE (Iron Sulfide) Q QUARTZ (Silicon Oxide) QUETZALCOATLITE (Zinc Copper Tellurite Hydroxide) R RAITE (Hydrated Sodium Calcium Manganese Titanium Iron Silicate Hydroxide) RAMMELSBERGITE (Nickel Arsenide) RAMSDELLITE (Manganese Oxide) REALGAR (Arsenic Sulfide) RHABDOPHANE (Hydrated Cerium Lanthanum Neodymium Phosphate) RHENIITE (Rhenium Sulfide) RHODIZITE (Potassium Cesium Beryllium Aluminum Borate) RHODOCHROSITE (Manganese Carbonate) RHODOLITE (variety of PYROPE garnet, Magnesium Aluminum Silicate) RHODONITE (Manganese Iron Magnesium Calcium Silicate) RICHTERITE (Sodium Calcium Magnesium Iron Silicate Hydroxide) RIEBECKITE (Sodium Iron Magnesium Silicate Hydroxide) ROCK_CRYSTAL (variety of Quartz- Silicon Oxide) ROCKBRIDGEITE (Iron Manganese Phosphate Hydroxide) ROMANECHITE (Hydrated Barium Manganese Oxide) ROSASITE (Copper Zinc Carbonate Hydroxide) ROSE_QUARTZ (variety of Quartz- Silicon Oxide) ROSELITE (Hydrated Calcium Cobalt Magnesium Arsenate) RUBY (variety of Corundum- Aluminum Oxide) RUTILE (Titanium Oxide) S SAFFLORITE (Cobalt Iron Arsenide) SAINFELDITE (Hydrated Calcium Arsenate Hydroxide) SAL_AMMONIAC (Ammonium Chloride) SAMARSKITE (Yttrium Cerium Uranium Iron Niobium Tantalum Titanium Oxide) SANBORNITE (Barium Silicate) SANDSTONE (a common sedimentary rock) SANIDINE (Potasium Aluminum Silicate) SAPPHIRE (variety of Corundum- Aluminum Oxide) SARD (variety of Quartz - Silicon Oxide) SARDONYX (variety of Quartz - Silicon Oxide) SARTORITE (Lead Arsenic Sulfide) SCAPOLITE (Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate Chloride Carbonate Sulfate) SCHEELITE (Calcium Tungstate) SCHMITTERITE (Uranyl Tellurite) SCHOLZITE (Hydrated Calcium Zinc Phosphate) SCHORL (complex Sodium Iron Boro-Aluminum Silicate) SCHROCKINGERITE (Hydrated Sodium Calcium Uranyl Sulfate Carbonate Fluoride) SCOLECITE (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Silicate) SCORODITE (Hydrated Iron Arsenate) SCORZALITE (Iron Magnesium Aluminum Phosphate Hydroxide) SEDIMENTARY (rocks formed via biochemical, clastic, or evaporative processes) SELENITE (alternate name for Gypsum) SELENIUM (Se) SEMSEYITE (Lead Antimony Sulfide) SENARMONTITE (Antimony Oxide) SERANDITE (Sodium Manganese Calcium Silicate Hydroxide) SERPENTINE (Iron Magnesium Nickel Silicate Hydroxide) SHATTUCKITE (Copper Silicate Hydroxide) SIDERITE (Iron Carbonate) SILICATES (Class) SILICON (Si) SILLIMANITE (Aluminum Silicate) SILVER (Ag) SINHALITE (Magnesium Aluminum Borate) SJOGRENITE (Hydrated Magnesium Iron Carbonate Hydroxide) SKLODOWSKITE (Hydrated Magnesium Uranyl Silicate) SKUTTERUDITE (Cobalt Arsenide) SMITHSONITE (Zinc Carbonate) SMOKY_QUARTZ (variety of Quartz- Silicon Oxide) SODALITE (Sodium Aluminum Silicate Chloride) SPANGOLITE (Hydrated Copper Aluminum Sulfate Chloride Hydroxide) SPERRYLITE (Platinum Arsenide) SPESSARTINE (Manganese Aluminum Silicate) SPHAEROCOBALTITE (Cobalt Carbonate) SPHALERITE (Zinc Iron Sulfide) SPHENE (Calcium Titanium Silicate) SPINEL (Group) SPINEL (Magnesium Aluminum Oxide) SPODUMENE (Lithium Aluminum Silicate) STAUROLITE (Iron Magnesium Zinc Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide) STELLERITE (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Silicate) STEPHANITE (Silver Antimony Sulfide) STIBARSEN (Antimony Arsenic) STIBICONITE (Antimony Oxide Hydroxide) STIBNITE (Antimony Sulfide) STICHTITE (Hydrated Magnesium Chromium Carbonate Hydroxide) STILBITE (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Silicate) STISHOVITE (Silicon Dioxide) STRENGITE (Hydrated Iron Phosphate) STRONTIANITE (Strontium Carbonate) STRUNZITE (Calcium Zinc Arsenate Hydroxide) STURMANITE (Hydrated Calcium Iron Aluminum Manganese Sulfate Tetrahydroxoborate Hydroxide) SUGILITE (Potassium Sodium Lithium Iron Manganese Aluminum Silicate) SULFATES (Class) SULFIDES (Class) SULFUR (S) SUNSTONE (variety of Oligoclase, Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate) SUOLUNITE (Hydrated Calcium Silicate Hydroxide) SUSANNITE (Lead Sulfate Carbonate Hydroxide) SUSSEXITE (Manganese Borate Hydroxide) SVANBERGITE (Strontium Aluminum Phosphate Sulfate Hydroxide) SYLVANITE (Silver Gold Telluride) SYLVITE (Potassium Chloride) SYMPLESITE (Hydrated Iron Arsenate) SYNCHYSITE (Calcium Cerium Lanthanum Neodymium Yttrium Carbonate Fluoride) T TAAFFEITE (Beryllium Magnesium Aluminum Oxide) TAINIOLITE (Potassium Lithium Magnesium Silicate Fluoride) TALC (Magnesium Silicate Hydroxide) TANTALITE (Iron Manganese Tantalum Niobium Oxide) TANZANITE (gem variety of Zoisite) TARBUTTITE (Zinc Phosphate Hydroxide) TEALLITE (Lead Tin Sulfide) TEKTITES (Meteoric Silica Glass) TELLURIUM (Te) TENNANTITE (Copper Arsenic Sulfide) TEPHROITE (Manganese Silicate) TETRAHEDRITE (Copper Antimony Sulfide) THAUMASITE (Hydrated Calcium Silicon Carbonate Sulfate Hydroxide) THENARDITE (Sodium Sulfate) THOMSONITE (Hydrated Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate) THORITE (Thorium Uranium Silicate) THOROGUMMITE (Thorium Uranium Silicate Hydroxide) TIN (Sn) TINAKSITE (Titanium Sodium Potasium Silicate Hydroxide) TINCALCONITE (Hydrated Sodium Borate) TITANIUM (Ti) TITANITE (alternate name for Sphene) TOPAZ (Aluminum Silicate Fluoride Hydroxide) TOPAZOLITE (the yellow variety of Andradite Garnet) TORBERNITE (Hydrated Copper Uranyl Phosphate) TOURMALINE (Group) TREMOLITE (Calcium Magnesium Iron Silicate Hydroxide) TRIDYMITE (Silicon Dioxide) TRIPHYLITE (Lithium Iron Manganese Phosphate) TRONA (Hydrated Sodium Bicarbonate Carbonate) TSAVORITE (variety of Grossular garnet) TSUMCORITE (Hydrated Lead Zinc Iron Arsenate) TSUMEBITE (Lead Copper Phosphate Sulfate) TURQUOISE (Hydrated Copper Aluminum Phosphate) TYUYAMUNITE (Hydrated Calcium Uranyl Vanadate) U ULEXITE (Sodium Calcium Borate Hydroxide) ULLMANNITE (Nickel Antimony Sulfide) URANINITE (Uranium Oxide) URANOCIRCITE (Hydrated Barium Uranyl Phosphate) URANOPHANE (Hydrated Calcium Uranyl Silicate) URANOPILITE (Hydrated Uranyl Sulfate Hydroxide) UVAROVITE (Calcium Chromium Silicate) UVITE (complex Calcium Sodium Magnesium Iron Boro-Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide) V VALENTINITE (Antimony Oxide) VANADINITE (Lead Chlorovanadinate) VARISCITE (Hydrated Aluminum Phosphate) VAUXITE (Hydrated Iron Aluminum Phosphate Hydroxide) VERMICULITE (Hydrated Magnesium Iron Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide) VESUVIANITE (Calcium Magnesium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide) VESZELYITE (Hydrated Copper Zinc Phosphate Hydroxide) VILLIAUMITE (Sodium Fluoride) VIVIANITE (Hydrated Iron Phosphate) VOLBORTHITE (Copper Vanadate Hydroxide) W WALPURGITE (Hydrated Bismuth Uranyl Arsenate Oxide) WARDITE (Hydrated Sodium Aluminum Phosphate Hydroxide) WAVELLITE (Hydrated Aluminum Phosphate Hydroxide) WELOGANITE (Hydrated Sodium Strontium Calcium Zirconium Carbonate) WERNERITE (properly called Scapolite, Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate Chloride Carbonate Sulfate) WHEWELLITE (Hydrated Calcium Oxalate) WHITEITE (Hydrated Calcium Iron Manganese Magnesium Aluminum Phosphate) WHITLOCKITE (Calcium Magnesium Iron Phosphate Hydroxide) WILLEMITE (Zinc Silicate) WITHERITE (Barium Carbonate) WOLFEITE (Iron Manganese Phosphate Hydroxide) WOLFRAMITE (Manganese Iron Tungstate) WOLLASTONITE (Calcium Silicate) WOODHOUSEITE (Calcium Aluminum Phosphate Sulfate Hydroxide) WULFENITE (Lead Molybdenate) WURTZITE (Zinc Iron Sulfide) X XENOTIME (Yttrium Phosphate) XONOTLITE (Calcium Silicate Hydroxide) Y YUKSPORITE (Hydrated Potassium Barium Sodium Calcium Titanium Silicate Fluoride Hydroxide) Z ZEOLITE (Group) ZEUNERITE (Hydrated Copper Uranyl Arsenate) ZINC (Zn) ZINCITE (Zinc Manganese Oxide) ZINKENITE (Lead Antimony Sulfide) ZINNWALDITE (Potassium Lithium Iron Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide Fluoride) ZIPPEITE (Hydrated Potassium Uranyl Sulfate Hydroxide) ZIRCON (Zirconium Silicate) ZOISITE (Calcium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide) |